Unknown Speaker  00:05
This is the context in which the state begins to integrate money. By First Nations 68, the state was basically uninterested in women as mothers or otherwise, then from experience in war, sino Japanese war 1894 to 95. The Japanese leaders began to realize that when the men went away to war women hesitated place that one could not more women in creating the modern state. Before women then had been limited to elementary education, it was compulsory elementary education for both sexes, there was new emphasis on more training for women, women as good wives, and wives mothers, as this, this interest then of the state and women as wives and mothers, but what is new about it is not the emphasis on wives the emphasis on mothering these new, this begins in 1890s. So in today's presentation, I'll kind of touch on. Most of my talk will be about this 1890s era. But for you to understand how the godmother of the 1890s is different than what existed in Japan a conception of what it was before that I'll talk a little bit about motherhood in Japan before he can assist me for this period of the 1890s. The Japanese found it was not a nuclear family at this time, it was a stem family. That means that there would be two or more married couples, the air is parents and children. And it is a hierarchy with more power, more authority in the hands of older people and males. And so therefore, of course, it was the woman who marry into the family who married the heir who is most likely to be the mother of young children, children that would need intensive care. But this woman had the least authority of any of the adults in the family. She was an outsider, the family was an eternal unit. And she was then not given much authority over her own children. The task of hearing the air tend to go to her mother in law, if the law were alive, on the principle that the mother in law had been in the family longer and could better prepare the air for his duty as being a part of family carrying on the family name carrying on the family business. Okay, so, separation, in fact, between biological parenthood and mothering, I don't want to overdraw this, but I don't think either one should underestimate this, this gap between the bearing of the child and who actually cared for the child. This young wife, her mother was regarded as an extra pair of hands a strong bat, she did the backbreaking labor, God at earliest in the morning, went to bed delays at night. So she did not necessarily care for her baby, she would nurse her baby, the grandmother might or older siblings, brothers and sisters might carry the baby around, strapped to the fat head facing forward. All day long, the baby might sleep with the mother, but the grandmother might have such total charge of raising the air that the baby might sleep beside planning at night, as well. So this is something very different than modern motherhood, the idea that the biological mother was the only natural caregiver nurture for the child does not really exist in Japan. Well, up to really the 40s and even beyond, changes begin to happen with with contact with the West, but it's a slow process of diffusion from top, top down. So when confined in the 1930s, this kind of pattern of parenting in rural areas and among even some urban families. How does this change that after his 1868 political event, the Meiji Restoration, that when the new government comes to power, it is committed to creating a center why's administration, this idea of rich country economic development in modern art?

Unknown Speaker  05:08
Again, at first, the state seems to except for making provision that women, as the boys as well as girls will go to school seems to leave women alone. So these old conceptions of mothering, and these old conceptions of childcare linger, families just do as they've done. Pretty much. But again, there is a change from the time of the sino Japanese war, you can like four to five. In fact, in forming the Japanese state, many of the top leaders of this period were either educated in the west or had knowledge of the glass, someone begins to see among men policies are basically made by men. A new view of worker, the first just here and there. Isolated views that women are important as mothers of the new generation of citizens. The idea that socialization is not simply a private act. But socialization has implications not only for the family, a private unit. But for public utilities such as the state. Again, from the 1870s, one or two men advocate higher education over the better prepared women are to be mothers to better citizens Japan will have, but they're bucking the tide. And so there are no higher ed institutions of education for women created until the 1890s. There are private mission schools that educate Japanese women who attend them. Often women have the upper classes, which are kind of Western version of a good wife and wise mother, the Victorian ideal of womanhood. These women encountered that ideal In addition, schools, but there is no public education for women until the 1890s. But in the 1890s, the Ministry of Education, after this experience in the war, decides that additional education for women is desirable. And so and at the time, these new high schools, these institutions of higher education for women are conceived. The idea underlying that is this Japanese hillside Kembo, literally the Chinese characters are good wife, and wise mother. But again, the idea of the wise, The Good Wife, being an efficient household manager, despite old women as far back as the 17th century, had responsibility for running the household. So this is not new. What is new, I suppose, is that there are intrigued there is some introduction of Western concepts of nutrition, budgeting, as the money economy penetrates the country, budgeting becomes more important, that the real novelty of food likewise, mother is the emphasis on wise mother. Now explain why not only the structure of family, this mother in law is work against authority, the young mothers authority over children, therefore, the women's bible of this period before 1868 MultiTrader learning to women, which was a confusion cat really talked about the inferiority of women, basically, that was how does it go seven, or eight out of 10 women are affected with silliness, stupidity, jealousy and other vices. And the lack of virtue in women is so extreme, that they cannot they are so stupid that they can't even conduct themselves be good models for their children. This is again the period before 1868 The beliefs linger on athletes political change. So obviously the leaders of Japan

Unknown Speaker  09:42
well, they're sort of faced with the dilemma. They want to modernize motherhood. We have separation of workplace and home if you can as modern industries and modern companies. Why are those created? Men are leaving the home during the day, man others that and young children tend to be left at home because the boys and girls over age seven are going out to school. So we have the facto change and in childcare, and this problem of the old ideology, I mean if if without a change in ideas, by emphasizing mothers as socializers of children was faced with having any theory of generation of children being raised, if women are inferior and women are not responsible to socialize and children, but But what happens instead is now, instead of the foolish mother we have the wise mother, this school is designed to then improve girls and women so that they will be able to be the fathers of good citizens would sit citizens being boys will serve army young people who will listen to the dictates of the state and not just consider the good of their own family, their own little village their own neighborhood.

Unknown Speaker  11:14
So again, who the wife is not new, the idea was Mother is new. The Ministry of Education then from 1899, they exclude Wi Fi smother the course some of the higher schools for girls, and in around 1900 Like you know, dying, I guess when the middle schools for those who created good likewise, Mother becomes the poor. So education for women and girls have the middle level. Finally in 1911, the ethics textbooks for the elementary schools are rewritten. So I want to see these stories here. The wise mother sacrifices her son for the benefit of the country. The wise mother trains her child to be very hardworking and obedient and loyal. These kinds of stories appear in the textbooks. Before that one has stories in these epics textbooks. There's not a stress on motherhood simply on what we can do for the state their own role in work rather than emphasis on women on mothers as socializers. So there is a shift. How effective was this change, maybe the state is trying to reform ideas of motherhood. In some ways, I think the ideal of good wife and boys mother does not it begins to penetrate the upper classes, the women of middle class families maybe whose husbands can support them as full time homemakers are able to focus their attention on childbearing by but for women of lower classes whose husbands don't make enough money, to allow them to be a full time, childcare and domestic don't have the time they don't they don't have the leisure to put more time into rearing their children. I think there's a lag then in the penetration of this wide wide of other ideology. And this this whole idea of good wife, wise mother was very new to Japan, the wise mother is new. It's quite interesting, though, that in introducing a new idea, the state tried to present it as something old by using the Chinese terms, because yo Sai kambos, a term that existed before, but not with the same content. It appeared as though the Ministry of Education was endorsing tradition. But in fact, it was creating a new motherhood with new mothers role for Japanese women. So it's this new being presented in the guise of the older one. But

Unknown Speaker  14:21
it was also good to try and give you a sense of here's the Ministry of Education, the ministry, the Minister of Education, speaking in 1899, to move with educators, he's talking about he's addressing them on the occasion of the promulgation of the seated creative girls high schools. In Japan, young women will get married and become wives and mothers. But this does not mean that boys position is high and girls as low. Men and women should help each other. The boy has his calling and the girl has heard So each is distinct and engages in his own color. If one believes that countries which have good homes flourish, while those with many bad modes decline, under the family is the root of the state, the importance of girls protecting the home is admitted. Their calling is not inferior to the, to the work of men in society. girls education is principally to give them specialized training necessary to fulfill the calling these girls high schools are necessary to nurture and train girls is better homebodies. But in my view, there is no need for specialized training beyond this for Japanese women. So the woman's place is so important, but it's in the home. And again, in contrast to the period before 1868, the women's role in socializing children, their ability to perceive what is good instill it in their children, is something that is new. There is a tension however, between this new ideal good wife, wise mother then and the traditional family in which mother in law has authority. The state could have said that, not that the mother is good, but that women are good nurturers. But there's absolutely no emphasis from about 89 Onward, on the roles of the other caregivers. No one talks about Big Brother, Big Sister grandmother, the emphasis is on the mother. And he part of this is because of the influence of the advanced Western civilization. Japan was trying to be like the west, to not be overtaken by the West. That's one answer. But the other reason for qualifying mothers and kind of deepthroating mothers in law is of course, that the mother is younger than the mother in law and more likely to have gone through the educational system, I think more amenable to the demands of the state, less rigidly parochial, less rigidly focused on just family and neighborhood than the grandmother who's been living a life in a local community and living for her family for the seven years. And because the mothers, the young mothers would be more flexible, the state look to them, rather than granting the repository tradition to rear subjects for the state.

Unknown Speaker  17:44
There is I think, I didn't talk a lot about The Good Wife, part of this good wife, wise mother, but I will say that unlike the Victorian women, The Good Wife was expected to work quite hard, she was not expected to be a lady of leisure. But the end so woman was expected to work engage in productive work, but not outside of the home. Japan was a land and family enterprises in working on the family farm and working in the family shop, the little family handicraft manufacturing concern, the woman would still be within the confines of the family, but contribute to productivity and international development. But I think what happens to Japanese women, good wife, wise mother that amounts to speed up. Because women are expected to give more attention to raising children, they're also expected to work very hard. To increase productivity for national development, you're also expected to be very careful with consumption to be frugal so that savings can be reinvested in Japan. I think what it does, in some ways is put new demands on women. And that's one of the results of this, putting white lines on the policy. And now looking forward to the present. Very briefly, what can ask this question, what meaning is the role of the state in reconstructing early 20th century Japanese mother have for American feminists, feminists in the world today? And what meaning does it have for us as we look forward to the 21st century? I think I'll restrict myself to perhaps well to one breakpoint I have two weak points. That is first. I presented very quickly to a lot of material but in my own work as I grapple with this question of motherhood in the state, I think feminists may not have given enough attention to precisely what is the state all that is is a modern nation state, what we define as state? Or does a specialized set of political institutions constitutes state? That is our ancient governments also states. This, that's one kind of question I'd like to raise, what is the state? I can't answer and I'm just beginning to search myself, but I think we consider it and what is the nature of the state? The other question, I think, one might consider as one looks at women's roles or motherhood in the state is this. What is the relationship between this the state, and womanhood and this public domestic or public private dichotomy that we see used as a framework to analyze women in society? Again, I don't really have answers, I plan to spend the next three years looking for answers to these questions, but I think they are important. The second point I'd like to make in terms of relevance to research today or action today, is that Japanese women once lived and embedded in a village or neighborhood community in a city and they will lead only very tenuously very loosely to the higher levels of the polity before 1868. But

Unknown Speaker  21:26
and so they in some ways, they were free from pressure to conform to a state created ideology state created model of womanhood. The the Japanese government before 1868, except for promoting births because their influence fantasize of a population declines in some areas, your family member population declines did not intervene in those roles. These confusion tracks that talked about women's inferiority to inferiority blocking motherhood, were private rights, not state sponsored rights. But But I wonder this, I'd like to ask the question does the modern nation state had inherently a kind of totalitarian impulse to want to control the lives not only of women, but all of its citizens so that he can mobilize us for war or for other ends? That is, it seems to me the modern nation state does not want families or individuals or communities to have their own goals or weekenders, but to be able to have at least in times of emergency enough control, to mobilize us all for a single purpose, purpose, that's sort of the essence of the modern nation state. And if this is the tendency of the modern nation state, it suggests to me that feminists like perhaps want to do two things. First, to unmask this the state control over

Unknown Speaker  22:57
over womanhood over what we do, how we think,

Unknown Speaker  23:01
and to to attempt to gain entry, perhaps the positions of power in the political process to try and shape the way the state attempts to control us. Otherwise, we as women may be compelled to serve the state's needs, or needs, which may be antithetical to our own values or goals. So that's Japan in the early 20th century to hopefully the year 2000.

Unknown Speaker  23:42
I have one very small correction when you're trying to lose some hope doesn't disappoint you all too much. It's not women in the family in the Russian Revolution, it's one of the family and Russian revolutions. So we're dealing with this after the Russian Revolution. So rather than see whether the family on dedicated family policy imagine for instance, the central executive committee of the Soviet Russia, the highest elected legislative body, men in Moscow in the former palace of the Tsar, more than 300 delegates gathered in the great Kremlin Palace. ablaze with white decorated with gold. It resembled the inside of the magnificent cathedral. Beneath the critical chandeliers, women workers and peasants in their ragged coats and red armbands mingled with the crowd. Here in 1926, after more than a year nationwide debate, the delegates finally ratified a new code on marriage and guardianship. The debate over the new code has been far reaching and democratic. Peasants, workers, jurists, sociologists, women and young people, men in the towns in in the country in conventions ranging from Soviet central executive committee to 6000 Village needs to debate the very meaning and purpose of marriage under socialism. Hazards and workers were often less concerned with the technicalities of family law and setting their strong held views of Soviet social life. The debate on the 1926 code offers us a unique opportunity to discover how working class women perceive marriage, divorce sexuality, and the socialist experiments in family law. But before outlining their views, we must go back to 1970 and the Russian Revolution in order to understand the legal background to the debate, the motion acts came to power with a division of family relations based on the ideas of Marx and Engels and according to the Marxist tradition, capitalism itself gradually undermined the family by involving women in production outside the home. under socialism, the same would assume the basic functions of the family. Communal laundries, dining rooms, and daycare centers, staffed by paid workers would eliminate women's labor at home. When would enter the world wage work on an equal footing with men, the state would cease to interfere in the union of the sexes, marriage would become superfluous, and family would eventually wither away. The first family code the new socialist state, ratified in 1980, constituted the most progressive family and gender legislation in the world to ever see the color ball abolish the inferior legal status of women and create equality under the law. Instead of local bureaus of statistics. Notice that it's for the registration of marriage, divorce, birth and death. It abolished the validity of religious marriage and gave legal status to civil marriage on the code establish divorce of the request of either spouse, no grounds for unnecessary the ease with which a person might marry and divorce reflected the early socialist commitment to the idea that men and women should be free to come together and separate without the interference of church or state. In 1918, code also swept away centuries of property law and male privilege by abolishing the legal concept of the legitimacy and entitled All Children's parental support, maybe retain full control of their earnings and property after marriage, and neither spouse had any claim on the property, the other from a comparative perspective, and I can get team codes remarkably ahead of its time, similar legislation concerning divorce and legitimacy has yet to be passed in any of the major European countries getting the debate over the 1982 code, at least one delegate to the central executive committee, that Ukrainian woman named was slob. It's argued that the new Soviet code did not go far enough. She said, I can't reconcile the section on marriage model my socialist consciousness was small. It's believed that marriage registration should have been abolished altogether. In her words, of marriage relations was one of the conditions for quote the freedom of the individual, and marriage registration underlying both these freedoms argued strongly for free Union response declared. For me, marriage can only be a personal affair. I can't understand why this code establishes compulsory monogamy. This it seems to some kind of bushwalks survival.

Unknown Speaker  28:28
For some, it's also contemptuously dismissed the provision on alimony as quote, nothing more than payments for love. Yet respondents found yourself in minority, the central executive committee ratified the family code and the super moratorium on Project debates. arguments in favor for Union victory resurfaced with the end of the Civil War 19.1 The proponents of free Union were soon joined by others seeking reform not unique to our code. The new reformers argued that the code did not address the social problems created by the recent years of war, famine and economic ruin. Millions of homeless children's living in the streets 1000s of families have fallen apart and constraints of survival. roughly 70% of the initial cut cut job cut backs under the New Economic Policy 1921 involved women. impoverished widows unable to survive in the countryside swelled the ranks of the female employed in cities between 70 and 100,000 women with men in de facto humans without the legal protection of registered marriage. We believe them since they became pregnant with few opportunities for employment and no recourse alimony, many of these miniature prostitution. In 1925 jurists drafted a new family code designed for dress for the new social problems, how to deal with an answer for you. The draft of the new code extended the legal rights of marriage to give back to the union's to further simplify the divorce procedure, and gave both married Ambio married for claim on the earnings of their partners. Although women were divided their opinions of the new legislation, they were united in their critique of existing social relations. They passionately opposed frequent divorce and repeatedly stressed that men should take more responsibility for their sexual behavior hasn't called up the delegate to the central executive committee spoke for many women in her angry condemnation of male responsibility. Some men have 20 lives, she said, they live with one per week, another two and they each one of the child. Indeed this should not be allowed. Announcing that's lack of commitment to marriage. She noted that sarcasm, men would say that women are guilty, they swear they have nothing in common with their wives. This is all ridiculous. Is it really possible for you there are so many times and to never have anything in common? Together, but delegate to the central executive committee who worked in a textile factory before the disintegration family like she saw around her. She said a girl marries a year or so passes, her husband abandons her, she goes to another, more children result. What kind of life is that she asked her fellow delegates. She called attention to a widespread phenomenon wreaking havoc before the class marriages. As men took advantage of the opportunities for social mobility created by the revolution, some began to regard their wives as backward and uneducated. When you're working, in fact that you know the very unpleasant picture she said, as long as the guy doesn't participate in political work. He works and respects his wife that he as he should, but just a little promotion that already something stands between them. He begins to stay away from his family and his wife. Already she doesn't please. Can you call them another delegate to the seeds? The central executive committee agreed. She said that she could understand the man who married for a short time and then divorced his wife because the two had nothing in common. But she had an angry, I can't forgive him after this little woman for 20 years has five kids and then besides, his wife no longer pleases Him. Why didn't you praise them before but now she doesn't shame on you comrade men accused men of using benefiting from their labor and then discarding them as they grow older, less attractive. He doesn't understand why she's ugly. Now people smear it's because she's worn out on his behalf. Can you talk a castigated those men who betrayed their wives and justify their actions in terms of love? This isn't what she said. This is sweatshops that men took advantage of easy before slavery to abandon their wives and families. She mimicked the popular male mentality. Ah, here's freedom. I feel free. Give me a divorce.

Unknown Speaker  32:59
The women delegates expressed special bitterness toward men who have left their marriages because they no longer have anything in common with their wives. They distrusted the new commonality men found so readily with younger less burden women. These women and 1000s liked the value of different commonality in marriage, when based on a shared common a working partnership and mutual commitment to children. A common entity based on personal information and sexual attraction was threatening to women who had labored all their lives in a narrow confines of household or factory and more to some degree economically dependent on their husbands. Women's fears were further exacerbated by the imbalance of the sex ratio in the 1920s. As a result of the war losses, women outnumber men by roughly 10% Increasing the competition for a male partner and provider. Not the woman can debate argued that women should imitate male sexual behavior. On the contrary, many insisted on the need for a more serious, more responsible approach towards sex and marriage. And the public criticize women for contributing to their own sexual exploitation. Who permitted this she asked you permitted this yourselves comrade women, we value ourselves too cheaply. One man should not have for women she argued, but should wait two months for one. The question is how can we avoid being exchanged like gypsies we call a pleaded for end to male promiscuity so that quote, our children will not suffer and our households will not be really well in households and suffering children or recurring themes and discussions within the family code. Almost 45% of the women in the larger towns who divorced in the 1920s were unemployed and economically dependent on their husbands. In a period of high unemployment and limited social services. Divorce had especially serious consequences and older delegate from Siberia and ensure Koba described these consequences There is no danger for the match and Claire for he meets another and we'll live with her. But for the woman is hard to difficult to live under such conditions, all she gets is poverty and poverty gets you nowhere. She noted that the country desperately needed children's homes for that. If the state took responsibility for this now it would fail. In the absence of adequate say resources Sherpa will place the blame on our side makes mistakes she said. But all the same, the majority of the guilty ones are men should have co argued that a man must support his children no matter how many ex wives can have. She flatly told the male delegates if you love tobogganing, and you have to pull your sled uphill.

Unknown Speaker  35:43
Unfortunately, here's a man harnessed himself to the family sled and tried it responsibly uphill, there were insurmountable obstacles in the path. Even with the best intentions, the average Soviet working man could not support two families on his wages. In Moscow, the average worker hitting your family in 1924 earns about 82 rubles a month. under optimal circumstances, a second income from a working wife for teenager brought the month of family earning to about 125 books. The monthly expenses for this average family make people 407 levels. If the male worker became involved with another woman and had a child by her, the court was likely to order him to pay 1/3 is wages to child support. This slug is original family in serious financial trouble, almost Henryville short meeting their monthly expenses. If the same male worker left his wife and children for the other woman, the court would have ordered him to pay 1/3 of his income to his former wife. Without the male wage, the family's income amounted to only 43 mils a month, and with child support 70 models you have the monthly expenses for a woman with one child amounted to about 72 rubles. Her earnings and his payments could not cover the family's basic expenses. And if a woman did not work or only worked part time, or had more than one child, the family's financial prospects were even more dismal. regardless of circumstances, the result was unambiguous. Given the high level of female unemployment, the low level of wages in general, the concentration of women workers and unskilled low paying jobs and the lack of adequate daycare. The progressive legislation on divorce was sharply at odds with economic facts of working class like working class wives did not need training statistics to grasp this point. Several women discuss the problems of divorce, alimony and child support and precise budgetary terms. offering their own modest family budgets as examples. They told the jury that the average male wage could support no more than one family. If a man married many times has been good. It was even more difficult for women to collect that with child support. Russia had the highest divorce rate with any European country 19.6. In Moscow, where the divorce rate was higher than the national average. There were 477 divorces for every 1000 marriages. One delegate remarked, we know of cases in which boys 18 to 20 years old have registered 15 times and in 10 of these marriages, there were consequences. What can the court take from him nothing. A woman from a rural area. In the towns and in the countryside, it is possible find no small number of families abandoned by husbands. Although they sometimes pay child support that is not enough to live on. And often they simply stop paying. This affects children most painfully of all. In some cases, women are responsible for these tragedies, but mainly this man. working class women sought to preserve the family insofar as it represented very real personal bonds between parents and children. The withering away of the family did not represent an abstract restructuring gender relations, but the ever present possibility they will be unable to feed their children. With its opposition to divorce in the Union was based on their desperate need for full access to their husband's wages in order to support themselves and their children. One working class housewife noted the grim Alaskan women in the majority of cases are more backward, less qualified and therefore less independent than that generic to bear children to be enslaved by the kitchen and then to be thrown aside by your husband. This is very painful for this is why I'm against easy divorce. Another woman working in the women's department of the party in a rural area, read an article Alexandria pelletizing her local paper and expressed similar disapproval. She wrote, it seems to be the common cause view is directed toward the destruction of the family. She proposes Supreme Law and for union. Her opinion is that the spiritual life of a person, insofar as it is vast and complex, cannot be satisfied by union with one, but that a person needs several partners. In our opinion in the countryside This is simply called blockchain. Need to struggle for the preservation of the family. Alimony is necessary as long as the state cannot take all children under its protection. Although women agreed on the main problems of social life, the high divorce rate now responsibility and data for child support payments, they differ in their solutions. One of the

Unknown Speaker  40:40
major ratification of the new code suggested that the recognition of de facto marriage was an excellent means for protecting needy women at a time when the state could not another delegate favorite recognition of de facto marriage, but doubted that the law alone could resolve the problems of social life. She argued that the country needed children's homes, not court procedures, and a woman workers spirits factory will I think it's necessary to increase the number of childcare institutions so that women can stop fearing divorce and running after alimony. Yet many working class women oppose recognition of the fact of marriage and the new simplified divorce procedure. Given the state's inability to shoulder the burden of child rearing, they fear divorce and regarded recognition of de facto marriage as a direct threat to their own economic security. 10 women factory workers wrote a joint letter suggesting that only two types of women should have the right to child support the legal ex wife and the woman living open to the man who did not have another family. Any woman who knowingly got involved with a married man did not deserve support. Women who had sexual relations with many men did not deserve even quote strapless, one woman possible under the law, one textile was my request from the other movie workers is to pass a decree ending stereo marriage. Other women went even further demanding that people who had extramarital affairs should be punished. A group of 10 Housewives argued that the government should quote strengthen the punishment for husbands to get involved with other women and also establish punishment for these women. These working class women fiercely defended a strict sexual morality and were willing to enforce it by repressive measures against both men and women. Rejecting several of the more progressive features of Soviet family law, it stopped to limit divorce, established punitive measures for extramarital relations and limit men's responsibility for children born out of wedlock. Ironically, they sought to reestablish many features of a more patriarchal system of law. In order to understand position to face the following five points should be kept in mind. First, there was a huge gap between Soviet family law and social reality have Kamille employment, the low level of the working class wage and the lack of state resources undermine the socialist vision who knew women were dependent on men and it was almost impossible for the male wager support to families in this context, divorced that profoundly negative impact on women children. Second, women sexual conservatism was a direct result of the gap between law and life. Their financial positions were so precarious that they could feel for the personal freedom inherent in so many divorce law. Their own family incomes shaken the balance on the thin line separating subsistence from rural could not withstand the loss of a male wage. Under these circumstances, the suppression of female sexuality outside of marriage serve not only male interests, but the economic interests of the entire family. When it sexual conservatism serves as a strategy to preserve the family as an economic unit. Third, the idea of marriage embodied in Soviet family legislation was sharply at odds with the idea of marriage expressed by working class women. The law was premised on the socialist vision of marriage as a freely chosen really dissolved companion on between two people individuals, but working closely with Nazi marriage and primarily compassionate or individual terms. They viewed marriage as a joint commitment to economic survival the family

Unknown Speaker  44:46
for all women did not have the same economic and legal interests. The interests of single and married women frequently diverge as a result of their different relationships, the male wage earner while recognition of the facto marriage benefits the single most, it directly threatened the wife. It is not surprising them that housewives are often the sharpest critics of sexual freedom, and the strongest proponents of the recognition of the fact no marriage. Their economic dependence undoubtedly conditioned their ideas about sexuality. Last week, working class women, despite their sexual and social conservatism, did have a vision of freedom have a different better life. They did not hold up a middle class ideal home a car filled on rigid gender roles, many of whom in the debate stressed the need for female independence for jobs skills and daycare. working class women wanted freedom, but they recognize that their liberation did not lie in the sexual liberation of men. They understood that until women have equal education, full employment, children's homes have a genuine comradeship of men for union spell disaster for themselves, their children and many other women. Ultimately, the ideas of these working class women demonstrate that sexual and social liberation cannot be realized through law unless accompanied by crucial material changes as

Unknown Speaker  46:22
we move back to a less moving picture I don't have a central committee yet. White paper with the reconstruction of West Germany in the late 1940s and 1950s included the political reconstruction of teamwork and debates over social policy affecting women in the family the revision of the 19 hundred's Civil Code concerning the relations between men and women. The future the family women's social political status with CenterState is going to bring about Nazi social policy toward women have argued that they were both in fact policy for the family politic for the whole population. What I want to argue is that in the late 40s and 50s policies ostensibly aimed at the family and the whole population were in fact, policy names at circumscribing social and political. Although as far as the political reconstruction had paid scant attention to the ways in which gender constructed politics and politics constructed gender in post World War Two West Germany, the salience of gender as a political concerns was not contemporary. Because it's hardly surprising. After making 45, Germany was a society far more adult women than men. In some cities, the rates are as high as 172 to 100. And then the age group 15 to 50, to describe it as being greater. In the the first postwar census, conducted in 1950, was prisoners of war had returned, indicated that nearly 1/3 of in one of the 15 million Western households were headed by divorced, widowed, the distinction between economic and socio psychological reconstruction became blurred in a language to describe an oversupply, a woman's problem and a shortage of men. How best to regulate this abnormal market situation with the problems which were not obvious solutions. And then I can fit these alternatives were most explicitly discussed in the public policy debate for reforming the Civil Code, protective legislation for women workers and Family Policy. And these are the three areas I'm looking at a larger project from which this comes what I'll talk about today, and particularly in the debate around kidney money for children, literally, the German system of Family Allowances that was introduced before the fundamental law, the Federal Republic new constitution was passed in 1949 had like a timeline of protests in the 20s promised that men and women would have equal rights. It also guarantees the family would enjoy the state's particular protection. What form quality was to take, which family was to be protected, and how that protected should be implemented were questions answered reformulated explicitly in the debate around money for children's. There were obvious precedents for supplementary payments and was not the social legislation. But the Allies have defended these measures at the end of the war as part of enough to test in which the prime objective was population expansion according to Rachel's criteria. The definition of new policy has led to the first question government political pressure for the reintroduction of state finance payments intensified every currency reforms in 1948. Rising price levels but demand from trading is considered unusual for families of wage earners whose incomes leptin with less money than families on welfare When these concerns were taken up by the newly elected parliament, all parties agree that the workplace particularly great strains on family, making the families quote, one of the central problems of post war era. Unity broke down, however, over how that problem like most effectively addressed for the Christian Democratic Christian socialist ruling coalition, the family denied through the large numbers of single women who headed households will carry responsibility for children and dependent adults. The coalition emphasis on the threat to the families posed by a mother's decision to enter Wait were implanted in a family, there was always a way from Father support her family was essential in order to establish a higher ethical estimation in particular the mother and child. However, this goal would not be achieved by a system of across the board came to all children because a male wage is determined by achievement in the marketplace. So for licensed to support at least a non wage for any wife and two children. In fact, it was the fundamental rights or agency

Unknown Speaker  51:09
of the male provider to found a family basic wage levels guarantee that for larger families just like might not suffice and supplement the payments in the mail way to ensure that money is large and not be forced to work. The state should not be allowed to regulate the system moves in the direction of state administration representative returned to the unwanted state intervention of National Socialism, and a dangerous expansion of the state's authority of private relations, rather than self regulation, by the private sector was the only acceptable admission of pollution. These principles embodied the CDU CSU commitment to the SoTell and my picture with social market economy to claim by Konrad Adenauer economics and the reconstruction of the German economy must take place according to the competitive laws in the market economy with little to no cost. But social content must not be sacrificed. Definitely competitive capitalism with guaranteed Debt Solutions. Critics from within the ranks of the social democratic opposition argue that all the wages should support a family they might well not. In addition, excluding those with only one or two children from benefits with disadvantaged lives and divorced women whose needs were no less great than those of the low income family father, a policy of equal payments of all children, and the elimination of highly regressive systems of tax deductions for dependents, and that the legacy would permit all mothers to stay at home and would not have a higher ethical estimation of maternal child certain groups. In addition, the SPD proposed a system of state administration, finance to attacks and the president come a long way. By midnight, you could be treated fairly to resolve these conflicting views prompted the leading expert from within the labor ministry. This included that quote, alone is so complicated, that has implications for so many other established legal measures cannot be rushed. Rather, it requires much careful planning. In the interest to continue to debate around Family Allowances created an opportunity for sociologists and social theorists to leave the ivory tower and the sense of political discussion in a theoretical framework. The problem is based on these theoretical analysis, a number of themes. Most importantly, Family Allowances were intended as supplements to a male way. men, not women founded family, and it was the male wage license as well, it should be the basis for this instruction. The theoretical discussion family policy also emphasized that the work of reproduction was clearly on par with the work of production. Human capital accumulation was equated with other forms of creative value. The home was no haven in a heartless world, it was decided important work essential to economic prosperity, and the foundation for any futures is more social security. women's reproductive labor was crucial to Western reconstruction. Mothers who toiled outside the home were working double shifts. In the long term, the results will be either human factor reader or even worse reproductive slowdown and declining birth rates. Money for children represented society acknowledges the reports of women's work in the home and the need to elevate the value of this non wage labor. Proposals for Family Allowances had originally been motivated by the goal of preventing low income groups with children from taking below the poverty level and addressing a particular economic legacy of the warriors. However, by the early 50s, debates over Family Allowances had expanded digital policy discussions for far greater dimensions. In the process of definition of the family clearly merged. excluded single women with children and assume an ideal condition in which you wager any male would earn enough to support an adult woman in one or two children. And this in the initial emphasis, posts for recovery of disadvantaged groups will focus on reproductive work of the family and an expanding economy. As Conrad Ogden our the chancellor stated in his opening remarks to a new parliament elected in 1953, technological advance might slow down the corrosive effects of a declining birth rate. But it could not completely eliminate a process that threatens quote, to destroy our entire population and of course of the few generations. Only one thing that helps strengthening the family and thereby strengthening the desire for children the ability to pin the CD UCSC, wasting of time initiating new discussion of money for children, insensitive attract and develop

Unknown Speaker  56:00
the debate presume to decide the ultimate political circumstances and return to power and control of an absolute majority. Social Democrats continue to discuss the quote normal family of two adults and two children living from a male Wait did not fully capture the social reality of post war Germany, in which female headed households were anything but abnormal. But it was this normal family that remained at the core proposal drafted by the labor ministry and backed by the CDU CSU coalition. The plight of unmarried, widowed or divorced mothers and other low income families was dismissed as a legacy of the war that would pass a quote, sociologically faulty development certainly should not be encouraged in the disappearance of the surplus of women and continued economic growth. With this, the problem with absolute majority of the CDU CSU coalition could ensure the transversal will not leave the stalemate as it had two years earlier. Over SPD opposition if we ever a to a law in 1954, to provide monthly payments of 25 marks per child to wage earners who had three or more children. Family Allowances help you people be apparently families and more than two children and 25 marks monthly no incurred the costs of raising a child. There was certainly no evidence that the system of family allowance it's triggered babies to be sure of anyone that seeks to work outside the home once children arrive. But this reflects more than half the adequacy of income from other sources and or the lack of alternatives, rather than options created by anonymous payments provided by the 94 legislation. Once the system was in place, there were few efforts to change its basic dimension. Social Democrats and trade unionists ultimately dropped pressure for status in the system. For the rest of the decade, they concentrated on increasing benefits within the existing framework. Their advanced left them in an awkward coalition with ultra conservative family organizations that were pushing for the same objective. champions of the family and the right of the left who agreed that increased benefits would allow all mothers, for children all agree a mother's love with irreplaceable and indispensable. The fight for a meal waste was adequate to support a family in the battle for extending the coverage of Family Allowances for two related needs to achieve the same objective. Those grandparents left no doubt about this topic. Perhaps the emphasis of Western social policy on women's dependent status with a nuclear family desert no lengthy explanation. After 1945 Not only Germans were involved in what Julian Pinto was called the political reconstruction of Panama. To be sure, here in southern policymaking 50s address this agenda. But by moving beyond this observation, we can use the patron Family Policy to illuminate the peculiarities of the Germans and their attitudes for general life economic miracle Detective 1950s. across the political spectrum in the 50s, it's typical to discover a critical appraisal of quote normal families. Indeed, by the early 50s, to particular problems of single women, women without children did not have proper families. The massive loss of gold male life and the so called surplus and women caused by the war made it easier to label families headed by women as both incomplete or Pantanal. It will disappear as normal times, once again made possible and normal families. addressing the needs of these exceptional groups are no more short term solution. The demographic legacy there are also people who like to intense periods and reduce birth rates. Socialists, liberals in a conservative CDU CSU coalition share conceptions of economic growth that were predicated on expanding current population, despite the fact it's a much pyramid game As from postwork immigration, he's more than canceled out or lost. To be sure it was no longer the pure and the right to demand more babies. But the needs of a growing economy and the future of the Social Security system deliver new justifications for familiar rhetoric. And Germany emphasis on colonialism and woman has managed to not register in a dramatic rise in birth rates. Nor do the problems stay at home. By the mid 50s, and levels of female labor force participation increased more rapidly than those for men. And the number of married women wait for growth as well. Still, social policy continued to focus on ways for women to manage the double burden, or even better, to eliminate it altogether by staying at home. So so serious discussion of programs that will allow women to be mothers and wagers, for example, in the form of paying the daycare services, tax credits for daycare, or as in Swedish case, roughly the same period by addressing the rights of children.

Unknown Speaker  1:01:01
Instead, Western policies focused on the male wage, the possibilities for expanding part time work for women, and by the late 50s, the availability of foreign workers to fill the demands for continued economic growth. Potential criticism of the assumptions underlying the normal family was further diluted by the differences that continue to divide middle class women's organizations, the heirs to the fourth law feminists tradition, from women and Social Democratic Party trading. At the same time, although social opponents place greater emphasis on the economic needs motivating women to work outside the home, they will not be done in their insistence that socially just waiting for men, when ensured that quote, no other a preschool for school aged children can be forced to work as an economic necessity. Finally, the emphasis on the normal family social theory captured the central experience of post war Germans and here I'm struck by the parallels and reasonable if I lived in E commerce shows in the case of Germany in 1945, the family seemed to promise protection, security, organized self health and survival. In the face of the collapse of other sources of constitutional authority. This vision of the family would become a refuge from the product of fantasy and a concrete Utopia was for German sociologists and policy makers in the 50 an unquestioned reality to justify making the family the foundations of comprehensive social policy, the social policy, the advocated payment, reinforcing that reality, not facilitating the formulation of other countries. The categories that didn't emerge to describe pain relations when this part was played, call our attention to important characteristics of post work, society. The journey of discussing a family policy was unselfconsciously sociological economist. The language of social policy in the western context was appropriate to a nation that found itself in the throes of economic reconstruction, according to a capitalist blueprint, and it was seeking to overcome as a sort of way Phillips for capitalism. Not only was women's reproductive work essential to the functioning of the market economy, it was also women's responsibility to raise children to resist resist the consumer temptation for the economic miracle minority. Women also needed to police themselves. Those went up to work constantly threatened to cross that narrow boundary separating me from desire, men had to work. Women chose to work for mothers to choice meant turning their backs on their primary responsibilities, their motivations for particular scrutiny. discussion with the family provide excellent examples of the ways in which West Germans attempted to define the present. They also indicated Taliban Republic attempted to distance itself from its own past. While aggressively confronting one of the past most lesson consequences of divided Germany into confused categories of totalitarian theory it was possible to accomplish both objectives through communism and fascism at the same time. across the political spectrum, the emphasis on the family, as a private sphere reflected the perception that National Socialists subordinated the individual to the nation directly, by weakening the link to families that should hold the two together while preserving the individual's privacy and the rhetoric of the 50s. Not to then comment the light sought to rob parents of authority over their children and to transform youth into charges of the state. For women National Socialism also meant their quote forced emancipation, as they were driven into the wage labor force in the wartime economy. The same practices both parents insisted in the Soviet occupied zone where women were free to work in uranium mines, apparently all women please really worked in the uranium. In the 50s, Western was also renounced the Nazi test in which they sought political stability in the living space and they replaced it with a search for security in the 11th round for the family, in which the guarantee of a free West Germany would grow, in which a new generation would be socialized. The so called communist rule peoples of the East, a geographic designation that could be conveniently extended from the eastern border in Shanghai. For children, Western Children's Hospital presents to die out. across the political spectrum the message was the same communism friends and family in an effective Family Policy was a bulwark against communism.

Unknown Speaker  1:05:53
The particular form of the political reconstruction of the family in post 1945 West Germany guarantee that economic miracle would not be so miraculous for women, biology and define women's status under the Nazis remained with its destiny, the Democratic Republic. The new Western Republic was neither Weimar nor the Third Reich, but it didn't buy certain elements that makes it to its own most recent history. In the lining of colonialism, motherhood and the sanctity of family relations, there were striking continuities across the divide 1945 That suggests that much of the social policy directly women under the Nazis was not specifically fascist, as much as it was peculiar with Germany. The debates around the protection of the family did address staying with me. As an almost all of us in science, German women and 50s carried extraordinary burdens of biological motherhood, and socially constructed versions of housework and childcare. However, by fully accepting sexual division of labor, they're friendly when childcare and child rearing, and like questioning the motivation for mothers who work outside the home, policymakers guarantee that women's needs would be addressed only a certain way and enacted in the language of family policy in the 1950s, women's places reasserted and reified, not real time.

Unknown Speaker  1:07:22
I think we can proceed by having not been respectful remark that you wanted to dress that one or the other, or other contributions that you want to make that other perspective.

Unknown Speaker  1:07:45
First of all, I really appreciate it. But I wanted to ask a question, which was that? Well, first of all, blaming women for the decline of a home and hence the country is very familiar. I mean, you see, you're in blame, or in Germany, you see it as their responsibility to help build up. So it's so that women in the family are always seen, but policymakers is crucial, not just in doing it, but in blaming if it doesn't get done for their own reasons. But the question I have for you is just something that I was really missing in your paper, which is probably in your work, which is the whole connection of motherhood, and the waitress toward motherhood and imperialism. And I was thinking, as you were talking about a wonderful article that I read many years ago by Emma Gab, which is cool, or something like that. And it's about Britain's interests, sudden interest in motherhood and your family for imperialist and racist reasons, which were basically to, you know, provide more and more healthy children and healthy stock, blah, blah, blah. And I'm just wondering if in Japanese, in Japan, there isn't a similar kind of

Unknown Speaker  1:08:55
motivator motivations? Yes. Not so much in this period. What's interesting, in fact, thinking about Bob's paper in the I mean, how the state forms policy for women, the rising or falling birth rate has something to do with policy per family, children and women. My own work is daycare in this period in the early 20th century, but, and even comparing the recovery of this is away from your question. I'll get that. But, but the fact that I mean Japan was devastated by the war too. But 7 million people returned from the colonies men were dead. Yes, there was no worry about repopulating. Japan, there never been a time where shrinking population had been a problem for making 60s Onward. So although one might have thought that the Japanese could have had a postwar policy of nativism, and what happened is that birth control which had been illegal before 45 became legal and abortion for economic reasons, which is the number one reason for abortion in Japan today became legalized, there was no there was a need for the state to try and encourage births. That had never been a problem. There's never a problem with keeping up the population. And so, in some ways, one part of policy family was different in terms of the link between imperialism and money motherhood. Again, Japan's population was steadily rising in this period, even though there was concern over rising infant mortality rate between say, around the time of World War One. So although there was a blink not between the need for women to give birth to children who could become say soldiers and colonizers, there was some of that one sees it very clearly in the 30s as Japan, transport militarism. But there's a period before in which expansion is by peaceful economic means not by and although Japan did conquer territory by during World War One, Nike for five still fails was almost accidents, not concrete, a concrete military policy. So there wasn't an emphasis on motherhood to increase the population of the state. Okay, that wasn't really my only point.

Unknown Speaker  1:11:51
England wasn't declining population. At that point. It British government didn't like the way the soldiers had measured up in the Boer War, and they had rice growing up. So there was a sense that they needed more milk and even more nurturing, and then they might have been a war, it wasn't just about population is about nurturing

Unknown Speaker  1:12:09
whether that whole race wants to come back. Also is so you picked 50, which is curious if that is part of the state's new attitudes toward wives, mothers, wives, mothers who socialized particularly Japanese dads, or

Unknown Speaker  1:12:39
not at least not at this time at the turn of the century. And what is clear, there's a change by the 30s, I haven't done a lot of work in the 30 years, there's more to be done there. Because that is when the den about good wife and wives, mothers, especially wives mother becomes almost deafening. It's such a new idea in many ways, the educators are putting forth this idea. And it is, again, it's a new idea presented in the guise of tradition. And one way in which we can, I can one indicator that we have that it's very new is that there were Seminars held by the Ministry of Education in the Ministry of Welfare for upper class and upper middle class women. And the idea was that these women who are the wives of leaders, and also, importantly, society need to remodel themselves first. And then because they exert influence in the community and voluntary organizations, then the lower classes will, will follow. But I guess I'll rest then. That's

Unknown Speaker  1:14:01
now, Japanese, most of the others talk about that, because we've got to stop that. What role did the women have during the war? Was that that went off to war, that they had two massive factories. What happened was their rights and what happened with the women's strike, if anything at all, in the contemporary period, where the women are in the factories today, and what is their role as workers and as mothers, and one attempt has been made to offer more educational opportunities to the women. It seems to me that largely the discussion for Japan, West Germany and the Soviet Union sounds very mechanistic. There's very little code Sorry about the individual needs and the individual needs of the children. As such. That was not raised at all in the discussion for the three countries. What happens to children under a circus in this particular state, regardless of the state things have progressed with regard to the children as such. You said that you're interested in childcare. And certainly women go into the factory childcare is essential. And I would like to develop

Unknown Speaker  1:15:40
very quickly, just in terms of children, the state really emphasize what children can do for the state, and never had the state to help the child blossom as an individual. There were Montessori schools and some educators who were not were who were into creating spontaneous fulfilled children. But the dominant theme is, most many educators were nationalists, they were concerned with education, as the holder of citizens for the state, in terms of women in war, one might say that the ideology of domesticity that crippled the Japanese war, mobilization effort, because this idea of women in the home, that the married woman working being productive, but within the confines of the home, remained the dominant ideology. Only single women were, According to historians, only a single major only that is only single women were sent into factories, which of course limited Japan's potential to to mobilize its total. Its population efficiently for war. Because married women were not in the factories. This is the sock answer. On the other hand, my study of data shows the number of daycares doubled during the what we think of is the war years 41 to 44. And so if women were still in the home married women, with their children, why did the number of daycare centers double? I think this is a problem that we in America have not? I'm not I'm not sure then if there's something wrong with the statistics of women's labor that we have in the war period? Or, I mean, it seems to me

Unknown Speaker  1:17:38
that the reason for

Unknown Speaker  1:17:42
that is doubling of the number of daycare centers during the world. What a bit that married women were going outside of the home unable to turn their children. So I'm not the stock answers that really didn't work in factories, and, again, that Japan could not localize work for me today. Today. It's interesting. The ideology of domesticity that women are responsible for childcare still exists very strongly in Japan yet. The state subsidizes daycare at subsidized, subsidized non private but public but private daycare centers as well. Japanese women lament the fact that there isn't enough daycare, but the network is much much broader than our network in the United States. And I think there's a difference between this the current ideology of motherhood in Japan and America, that in Japan, it's mainly a division of labor out of convenience for my cubism never sunk in so the idea that a child is irreparable the development of the child, psychologically, or emotionally, is crippled by separating from the mother in preschool years is not an argument one hears in Japan. But for practical reasons, because full time jobs for men, men, they work seven days a week they work from nine and do overtime to 10 or 11 at night, but if you have to, you don't have to career couples, women are excluded from careers. If you did, there would be no family life and all the children without daycare would wither away and die with two people working possibly seven days

Unknown Speaker  1:19:37
a week until

Unknown Speaker  1:19:39
1010 at night. So the that women are still seen as mothers in Japan, but again the sort of psychic, the psychic the emphasis on the psychic need of the child for the mother is not as strong as it is in the notes. Nice. I think that's why there is no public outcry in Japan over government money going to daycare. And here you can hardly propose it without people really beginning to raise a political fuss. And yes, women can go to college in terms of education. In Japan Today, most women, many women go on to college. But there's a difference. Most women go to junior colleges. And it tends to be the men that go on to four year institutions. So even by saying that far more women go to colleges, their educational attainment still don't match. Those of you don't have to be quiet for a while, like your warm up, Russian

Unknown Speaker  1:20:47
matures. The next question is after two two. But I enjoyed all the papers. And I think thinking about Japan, within that there was a resistance from women themselves in that period, to challenge the states ideology of modernization of the motherboard, and whether in fact, women themselves had the resistance have been resistant? Or what what, what what did women think about it at this time? Do you think women allow themselves that easily to be manipulated and controlled by the state, then the family and the children or what have you

Unknown Speaker  1:21:43
who want to reset we know in the sense that a number of women were impervious to what the state was telling them, they were already doing peace work, or working outside the home and doing their best to take care of their children, but not able to do more than put put bread on the table and a roof over the head and not worry about how they were socialized with children. But also add another level of a feminist movement did develop in Japan.

Unknown Speaker  1:22:20
There was a whole

Unknown Speaker  1:22:21
controversy in 1918 over for example, the issue of state aid to motherhood came up in Japan, echoes of the debates taking place in the west and some opposed state aid to motherhood saying that the state is patriarchal, therefore depends on status dependence on men, we shouldn't have this others more conscious of the need of the difficulties for women, especially female headed families to sustain themselves argued that women were performing social services in raising children, so therefore they should be eligible for for state aid. There was the climate was very nationalistic in this time.

Unknown Speaker  1:23:16
Even though Japan was no longer threatened with

Unknown Speaker  1:23:19
Imperial domination. By the West, the desire to catch up desire to develop was strong. I think that there's not as much resistance to this idea of Imperial motherhood. There's was Republican motherhood in the west the idea that women will raise children to be good citizens. I think here because it's an empire. constitutional monarchy, the idea of the the Imperial motherhood was not that strongly resisted. There was some resistance but in terms of numbers in terms of columns,